FREE ESSAY ON MUSIC, FEELINGS AND ARTS

MUSIC, FEELINGS AND ARTS

Music is sound arranged into pleasing or interesting patterns. It forms an important part
of many cultural and social activities. People use music to express feelings and ideas.
Music also serves to entertain and relax. 
Like drama and dance, music is a performing art. It differs from such arts as painting
and poetry, in which artists create works and then display or publish them. Musical
composers need musicians to interpret and perform their works, just as playwrights need
actors to perform their plays. Thus, musical performances are partnerships between
composers and performers. 
Music also plays a major role in other arts. Opera combines singing and orchestral music
with drama. Ballet and other forms of dancing need music to help the dancers with their
steps and evoke an atmosphere. Film and TV dramas use music to help set the mood and
emphasize the action. Also, composers have set many poems to music. 
Music is one of the oldest arts. People probably started to sing as soon as language
developed. Hunting tools struck together may have been the first musical instruments. By
about 10,000 B.C., people had discovered how to make flutes out of hollow bones. Many
ancient peoples, including the Egyptians, Chinese, and Babylonians, and the peoples of
India, used music in court and religious ceremonies. The first written music dates from
about 2500 B.C. 
Today, music takes many forms around the world. The music of people in Europe and the
Americas is known as Western music. There are two chief kinds of Western music, classical
and popular. Classical music includes symphonies, operas, and ballets. Popular music
includes country music, folk music, jazz, and rock music. The cultures of Africa and Asia
have developed their own types of classical and popular music. For information on Indian
music, see the World Book article INDIA, DANCE AND MUSIC OF. 
This article deals with the importance of music, musical instruments, the elements of
music, and the system used for writing down music. It also includes information on the
various types of Western and non-Western music. For information about the history of
Western music, see the World Book articles CLASSICAL MUSIC and POPULAR MUSIC. 
The importance of music 
Music plays an important part in all cultures. People use music (1) in ceremonies, (2) in
work, and (3) in personal and social activities. 
In ceremonies. Nearly all peoples use music in their religious services. One kind of
religious music seeks to create a state of mystery and awe. For example, some cultures
have special musical instruments played only by priests on important occasions, such as
harvest ceremonies and the burials of chiefs. Similarly, much Western church music
attempts to create a feeling of distance from the daily world. Other religious music,
such as hymn-singing, helps produce a sense of participation among worshippers. 
Many nonreligious ceremonies and spectacles also use music. They include sports events,
graduation ceremonies, circuses, parades, and the crowning of kings and queens. 
In work. Before machines became important, people had to do much difficult or boring work
by hand. For example, labourers sang songs to help make their work seem easier. Crews
aboard sailing ships sang shanties, songs with a strong, regular beat. The sailors pulled
or lifted heavy loads in time to the beat. Today, the wide use of machines has made the
singing of work songs rare in industrialized societies. However, many offices and
factories provide background music for their workers. 
In personal and social activities. Many people perform music for their own satisfaction.
Singing in a choir or playing a musical instrument in a band can be very enjoyable. Music
provides people with a way to express their feelings. A group of happy campers may sing
cheerful songs as they sit around a campfire. A sad person may play a mournful tune on a
guitar. 
Many famous rulers have used music to help them relax. According to the Bible, David
played the harp to help King Saul take his mind off the problems of ruling Israel. Kings
Richard I and Henry VIII of England composed music. Other leaders have performed music.
For example, the former British prime minister, Edward Heath is a spare-time organist and
conductor. Former United States presidents Harry S. Truman and Richard M. Nixon played
the piano. 
People use music at a variety of social occasions. At parties and dinners, music is often
played for dancing or simply for listening to. In some countries, it is customary for a
young man to show that a young woman is special to him by serenading her or by sending
musicians to play and sing for her. 
Musical instruments 
A musical sound, or note, is produced when air vibrates a certain number of times each
second. These vibrations are called sound waves. Sound waves must be contained in some
way so that the performer can control the pitch, loudness, duration, and quality of the
note. Whatever contains the sound waves must also provide resonance--that is, it must
amplify and prolong the sound so the note can be heard. 
The vocal cords produce musical sounds in the human voice. These two small folds of
tissue vibrate and create sound waves when air passes them from the lungs. The throat and
the cavities in the head provide the resonance needed for singing. 
Most musical instruments have a string, a reed (thin piece of wood or metal), or some
other device that creates sound waves when set in motion. Musical instruments can be
grouped in five major classes. These classes are (1) stringed instruments, (2) wind
instruments, (3) percussion instruments, (4) keyboard instruments, and (5) electronic
instruments. 
Stringed instruments produce notes when the player makes one or more strings vibrate.
There are two basic types of stringed instruments: (1) bowed stringed instruments and (2)
plucked stringed instruments. 
Bowed stringed instruments are played by drawing a bow (a wooden rod with horsehair
stretched from end to end) back and forth across the strings. The friction (rubbing) of
the bow on the strings produces vibrations that are amplified by the body of the
instrument. Most bowed instruments have four strings. Each string is tuned to a different
pitch. To produce other pitches, the musician shortens the strings by pressing down on
them with the fingers. This is called stopping. 
The main bowed instruments, in descending order of pitch and ascending order of size, are
the violin, viola, violoncello or cello, and string bass. These instruments form the
heart of a symphony orchestra. Violins in an orchestra are divided into first violins and
second violins. The first violins play higher-pitched parts of musical compositions than
the second violins. 
Plucked stringed instruments are played by plucking the strings with the fingers or a
pick or plectrum. The guitar is the most common plucked stringed instrument. It has 6 to
12 strings. The harp, another important plucked instrument, has up to 47 strings. Other
plucked stringed instruments include the banjo, lute, lyre, mandolin, sitar, ukulele, and
zither. The strings of the violin and other bowed instruments also may be plucked to
produce special effects. This style of playing on a bowed instrument is called pizzicato.

Wind instruments are played by using breath to vibrate air in a tube. There are two chief
types: (1) woodwind instruments and (2) brass instruments. 
Woodwind instruments are grouped together because, before the invention of the saxophone,
they were all made of wood. Today, many are made of metal or other materials. In such
woodwinds as recorders, the player blows into a mouthpiece. In some other woodwinds, such
as flutes and piccolos, the player blows across a hole in the side of the instrument.
Still other woodwinds, called reed instruments, have one or two reeds attached to the
mouthpiece. The reeds vibrate when the musician blows on them. The clarinet and saxophone
are the chief single-reed instruments. Double-reed instruments include the bassoon,
English horn or cor anglais, and oboe. 
The player controls the pitch of a woodwind by placing the fingers on holes in the
instrument or on keys that cover holes. In this way, the player lengthens or shortens the
column of air that vibrates inside the instrument. The piccolo and flute have the highest
pitches of the woodwinds. The bassoon and contrabassoon have the lowest pitches. 
Brass instruments are played in a different way from that of woodwinds. The player
presses the lips against the instrument's mouthpiece so that they vibrate like reeds when
the player blows. By either tensing or relaxing the lips, the player produces different
pitches. With many brass instruments, the player can further control the pitch with
valves that lengthen or shorten the tube in which the air column is made to vibrate. 
The chief brass instruments in an orchestra are the French horn, trumpet, trombone, and
tuba. The French horn and trumpet have high pitches, and the trombone and tuba have lower
pitches. The trombone has a slide instead of valves. The performer pulls the slide in and
out of the instrument to control the pitch. Other brass instruments, including the
baritone horn and sousaphone, are used in bands. 
Percussion instruments are sounded by shaking them or by hitting them with the hand, a
stick, or a mallet. Drums are the most common percussion instruments. Most Western drums
do not produce a range of pitches. But kettledrums, also called timpani, can be tuned to
various pitches by adjusting the tension of the drumheads. Glockenspiels and xylophones
have a series of metal or wooden bars that produce a range of pitches. Other percussion
instruments include castanets, cymbals, gongs, marimbas, and tambourines. 
Keyboard instruments have a series of keys connected by mechanical means to a device that
produces notes. The musician presses the keys to make sounds. The best-known keyboard
instruments are the piano, harpsichord, and pipe organ. The keys on a piano activate
small hammers that strike strings. On a harpsichord, the keys control a mechanism that
plucks strings. Pressing a key on a pipe organ opens a pipe in which a column of air
vibrates. The player operates some pipes by pressing pedals with the feet. 
Electronic instruments include those that generate sounds by electricity and those that
electronically amplify sounds produced by an instrument. The most common electronic
instrument is the electric guitar. It makes louder and more varied notes than an ordinary
guitar. Electric guitars, electric pianos, and electronic organs are widely used in rock
music. A complex electronic instrument called a synthesizer is used to create original
sounds or to imitate the sounds of other musical instruments. Some synthesizers are
operated by computer. 
The elements of music 
A composer uses five basic elements to create a piece of music. These elements are (1)
notes, (2) rhythm, (3) melody, (4) harmony, and (5) tone colour. 
Notes are musical sounds of definite pitch. Most music is based on a scale, a particular
pattern of notes arranged according to rising or falling pitch. Western musicians name
the notes of a scale by labelling them with the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. This
cycle of seven letters is repeated as the scale is continued upward. The distance between
a note and the next highest note having the same letter name (for example, from C to C)
is called an octave. There are eight scale notes in an octave, including both the
repeated notes. The note at the upper end of an octave has exactly twice as many
vibrations per second as the note at the lower end. 
The distance between one note and another is called an interval. The adjacent notes in a
scale are separated from each other by one of two types of interval--a whole tone or a
semitone (half a whole tone). In many countries, a whole tone is known as a whole step
and a semitone is called a half step. 
Most Western composers have based their musical works on diatonic scales. A diatonic
scale has the eight notes of the octave arranged in a pattern that uses both whole tones
and semitones. There are two chief types of diatonic scales, major scales and minor
scales. The scales differ in the location of the semitones. A major scale has a semitone
between the third and fourth notes and between the seventh and eighth notes. All the
other intervals are whole tones. The natural minor scale follows a pattern of one whole
tone, one semitone, two whole tones, one semitone, and two whole tones. Two other minor
scales, the harmonic minor and the melodic minor, have different arrangements of whole
tones and semitones. But all minor scales have a semitone between the second and third
notes. 
Sometimes composers need to raise or lower the pitch of a note in a scale by a semitone.
A note raised in this way is called sharp. A lowered note is called flat. 
The notes of a diatonic scale, which are also called degrees, vary in importance. The
main note, called the tonic, is the first degree of the scale. The tonic serves as the
tonal centre of the scale, and all other notes are related in some way to the tonic. The
tonic also gives the scale its name. For example, C is the tonic in the C major and C
minor scales. 
Next to the tonic, the most important notes of a scale are the fifth degree, called the
dominant, and the fourth degree, called the subdominant. The seventh degree is called the
leading note because it leads to the tonic at the octave. 
A chromatic scale consists entirely of semitones. It has 12 notes to an octave, rather
than 8. You can hear the chromatic scale if you play all the white and black keys from
one C to the next C on a piano. After 1850, composers increasingly used notes from the
chromatic scale to make their music more colourful. During the 1920's, the Austrian
composer Arnold Schoenberg developed a type of music based on this scale. This music,
called atonal music or 12-tone music, has no tonal centre. 
Rhythm is the way the composer arranges notes in time. Every note has a certain duration
as well as a definite pitch. Some notes may last a short time, and others a relatively
long time. Rhythm helps give music its character. For example, a familiar piece of music
sounds very different if performed with all its notes the same length. The piece of music
sounds strange because it lacks the variety of the short and long notes that make up its
normal rhythm. 
Another important element of rhythm is accent. Most composers build their music on a
pattern of regularly occurring accents. Certain types of music have a fixed pattern of
accent. For example, a waltz follows a strong-weak-weak pattern, ONE two three ONE two
three. A march has a strong-weak pattern, ONE two ONE two. 
Some composers create different rhythms by accenting beats that are normally unaccented.
This technique, known as syncopation, has been widely used in jazz. 
Melody. The composer combines pitches and rhythms to create a melody, or tune. The
American composer Aaron Copland said, Melody is what the piece is about. When we hear a
piece of music, we most often remember its melody. 
Some short pieces of music have only one melody. Longer pieces may consist of different
melodies to give the music contrast and variety. A melody repeated throughout a
composition is called a theme. Composers often use a part of a melody or theme to develop
musical ideas. Such a part is called a motive. The first four notes of the German
composer Ludwig van Beethoven's fifth symphony form a motive. By repeating and varying
these four notes, Beethoven developed a theme for the first part of this work. 
Harmony. Most Western music is based on the idea of sounding notes together. The sounding
together of two or more notes is called harmony. 
Harmony involves the use of various intervals in a scale. Intervals are named according
to the number of degrees they cover in a major scale. For example, an interval from A to
C covers three degrees--A, B, and C--and is called a third. An interval spanning five
degrees, such as A to E or C to G, is a fifth. Fourths, fifths, and eighths are called
perfect intervals. Seconds, thirds, sixths, and sevenths can be either major intervals or
minor intervals. Perfect intervals and major intervals can be augmented (raised a
semitone). Perfect intervals and minor intervals can be diminished (lowered a semitone).

Composers use intervals to create chords, which are combinations of notes sounded at the
same time. The composer may build a chord on any note. The most common type of chord is
the triad, which consists of three notes, each a third apart. For example, a chord that
consists of the notes C, E, and G is a major triad. A chord with the notes C, E flat, and
G is a minor triad. 
The tonic triad, or tonic chord, is the most important chord in a piece of music. It is
built on the tonic note of the scale. The second most important chord is the dominant
chord, and the third is the subdominant chord. The dominant chord is built on the fifth
note of the scale, and the subdominant chord on the fourth. In the C major scale, the
tonic chord is formed by C, E, and G; the dominant chord by G, B, and D; and the
subdominant chord by F, A, and C. Any note in the diatonic scale can be harmonized with
one of the chords--the tonic, dominant, or subdominant. Many simple songs are harmonized
by using only these chords. 
Most Western composers use a harmonic system based on the tonic and dominant notes of the
scale. The composer fixes the tonic and thus a specific key (tonal centre) firmly in the
listener's mind. The composer may then modulate (shift) from one key to another by adding
sharps or flats to the music. Generally, these sharps or flats prepare the dominant or
tonic of the new key. Modulation adds variety and may emphasize a contrasting section of
a work. In most cases, the composer eventually returns to the original key. 
Another important element of harmony is the cadence. This is a succession of chords that
end a musical work or one of its sections. Most pieces of classical music end with a
perfect cadence, which consists of a dominant chord followed by a tonic chord. A plagal
cadence consists of a subdominant chord followed by a tonic chord. The Amen ending of a
hymn is an example of a plagal cadence. 
Harmony has been a part of Western music for more than 1,000 years. However, Western
composers' ideas about harmony have changed considerably over the centuries, particularly
their ideas about consonance and dissonance. Harmony that sounds smooth and pleasant is
consonant. Harmony that sounds rough and tense is dissonant. Generally, the notes that
belong to the major and minor triads are considered consonant intervals, and all other
intervals are dissonant. 
Composers use harmony chiefly for music that has a melody and accompaniment. Some musical
compositions consist of two or more melodies played at the same time. This form of music
is called counterpoint. 
Tone colour, also called timbre, is the quality of a musical sound. Tone colours produced
by different musical instruments vary widely. For example, a flute has a smooth, bright
sound, while an oboe has a more nasal quality. The differences in tone colour are due to
difference in the way the instruments are made and in the means of producing sounds on
them. Composers take account of tone colour in orchestration (writing or arranging music
for a group of instruments). They combine tone colours just as an artist combines paints
to create a picture. 
Musical notation 
Through the years, composers developed a system for writing down music so it could be
performed by musicians. This system is called notation. Notation indicates (1) the pitch
of notes; (2) the time values, or duration of the notes; and (3) expression--that is, the
composer's ideas about the manner in which the music should be performed. 
Indicating pitch. The simplest way to express pitch is to use the letters A to G. This
kind of notation, however, cannot show rhythm. Since the 1200's, composers have used
staff notation to express both pitch and rhythm. In this system, signs called notes
represent musical sounds. The notes appear on a staff, which consists of five horizontal
lines and the four intervening spaces. Each line and space represents a certain pitch.
Short ledger lines indicate pitches above or below the staff. 
A clef sign at the left end of the staff determines the names of each line and space.
Most music is written in either treble clef or bass clef. High notes, such as those for
the violin and flute, appear in treble clef. This clef is often called the G clef. It
fixes the G above middle C (the C nearest the middle of the piano keyboard) on the second
line from the bottom of the staff. Lower notes appear in bass clef, also called F clef.
The bass clef fixes the F below middle C on the second line from the top of the staff. 
Composers use both treble clef and bass clef for piano and harp music. The C clef is used
in music for the viola, and sometimes in music for the bassoon, cello, and trombone. This
clef fixes middle C in a position that minimizes the number of ledger lines. 
A staff signature, or key signature, appears at the right of the clef sign. It consists
of sharp signs or flat signs that indicate which notes should always be played sharp or
flat. Each staff signature can indicate either of two keys--one major key and one minor
key. For example, two sharps can mean the key of either D major or B minor. 
The composer may show a change from the staff signature by placing an accidental in front
of a note. An accidental is the sign for a sharp, a flat, or a natural. Any note not
marked by a sharp or a flat is a natural. The natural sign cancels a sharp or a flat. 
Indicating time values. Staff notation enables composers to indicate how long each note
should be held. The semibreve has the longest time value of any note. The second longest
note is the minim, then the crotchet, quaver, semiquaver, demisemiquaver,
hemidemisemiquaver, and so on. Each time value is divided by two to find the next
smallest note value. 
The shape of a note shows its time value. Semibreves and minims have an open oval shape.
Notes with shorter values have solid oval shapes. All notes except semibreves have stems.
To indicate notes with shorter values than the crotchet, composers attach flags, or
tails, to the stems. A quaver has one flag; a semiquaver has two, a demisemiquaver has
three, and so on. In a series of short notes, the composer connects the note stems with
beams instead of attaching a flag to each stem. 
A dot on the right of a note increases its duration by half. For example, a dotted minim
equals a minim plus a crotchet. Duration may also be increased by a tie, a curved line
that connects consecutive notes of the same pitch. The total duration of tied notes
equals that of the notes combined. 
Periods of silence are an important part of a piece of music. The composer uses marks
called rests to indicate silence in music. The various shapes of rests indicate their
time values. 
A composer groups the notes and rests in a piece of music into units of time called bars,
or measures. The composer uses bars to separate measures on the staff. The way in which
beats are grouped in bars is called the metre. 
Metre is indicated by the time signature, a fraction that appears at the beginning of a
piece of music. The numerator of the fraction tells the number of beats in a bar. The
denominator tells what kind of note--minim, crotchet, quaver--receives one beat. Music
with a 2/4 metre, for example, has two beats to a bar and a crotchet as the beat unit.
One bar of 2/4 may have a minim, two crotchets, four quavers, or some other combination
totalling two beats. A 4/4 metre, sometimes written as C, has four crotchets to a
measure. Other commonly used metres include 3/4 and 6/8. 
Many modern composers create irregular rhythms by changing the time signature several
times during a piece of music. These composers also may use unusual time signatures, such
as 5/4 or 11/16. 
Another important element of time in music is tempo. The tempo tells how slowly or
quickly the beat unit should be played. Composers sometimes show tempo by a metronome
mark, which indicates the number of beats per minute. The musician can then follow the
tempo by using a metronome, a timekeeping machine that can be adjusted to tick off each
beat. Composers also may use a number of Italian words to indicate tempo. For example,
the word adagio means slowly, and the word presto means fast. These Italian words are
used because Italian musicians had the greatest influence in Europe during the 1600's and
1700's, when composers first used words to indicate tempo. 
Indicating expression. To affect a listener's feelings, music must be expressive.
Composers use various words and symbols to indicate the kind of expression they want in a
piece of music. 
Some directions indicate articulation--that is, how a series of notes should be
connected. A curved line over or under notes means that the notes should be connected
smoothly. This style of playing is called legato. A dot over or under notes indicates
that they should be played as short notes with silence between them. Musicians call this
type of articulation staccato. 
Composers use certain Italian words or their abbreviations to indicate dynamics (loudness
or softness). For example, the word pianissimo (or pp) means very soft, and the word
fortissimo (or ff) means very loud. Other directions, also in Italian, concern the
emotional quality of the music. For example, dolce means sweetly, allegro means lively,
and cantabile means songlike. 
Music around the world 
Western music is the music of people of European ancestry. It is the major form of music
in Europe, North America, South America, and Australia. People in some Asian
countries--for example, China, Korea, and Japan--also enjoy Western music. Western music
can be divided into three main types: (1) classical music, (2) popular music, and (3)
folk music. 
Classical music, also called art music, is composed according to certain rules and
performed by musicians from written music. It includes symphonies and music for opera and
ballet. Classical composers have written different styles of music during different
periods of history. For example, most classical music composed in the late 1700's
stresses simplicity and elegance. But much classical music of the late 1800's is highly
imaginative and emotional. Music written by great classical composers of the past
provides as much enjoyment today as when it was written. See CLASSICAL MUSIC. 
Popular music includes many kinds of music, such as country music, jazz, rock music, and
music from musical comedies and films. Popular music, or entertainment music, is
generally much simpler than classical music. However, some pieces written as popular
music hundreds of years ago are performed as classical music today. In addition, many
great classical composers wrote some tunes in the style of the popular music of their
time. Thus, the line between popular and classical music is flexible, not hard and fast.

Country music is derived from the folk music of rural whites of the Southern United
States and other American traditional music. Country music is played from memory or
improvised (spontaneously varied) from an existing song. See COUNTRY MUSIC. 
Jazz first became popular about 1900 among blacks of the Southern United States. It
combines the complex rhythms of African music and the harmony of Western music. Jazz
musicians have experimented with many kinds of instruments and styles. Most jazz features
much improvisation. See JAZZ. 
Rock music is a mixture of blues, country music, jazz, and American and British
entertainment music. It is easier to understand than classical music or jazz. Styles of
rock music frequently change, but such music always has a strong beat and a simple melody
and rhythm. See ROCK MUSIC. 
Folk music consists of the traditional songs of a people. Most folk songs begin in rural
communities. One person makes up a song, and other people hear it and learn to sing it.
Some folk songs have been passed on in this way for hundreds of years. Many composers of
classical music have used folk music in their works. See FOLK MUSIC. 
Asian music sounds different from Western music because the scales, instruments, and
composing techniques used are different. For example, a scale in Western music has 12
notes to an octave. But the Arab scale has 17 notes to an octave, and the Indian scale
has 22 notes. Such scales are called microtonal because they are made up of
microtones--that is, intervals smaller than a semitone. The chief types of Asian music
are those of (1) China, (2) Japan, (3) India, (4) the Arab countries, and (5) Indonesia.

Chinese music began more than 2,000 years ago. Orchestras with hundreds of musicians
performed at early Chinese religious ceremonies and court festivities. Today, all Chinese
plays are set to music. Peking opera, also called Beijing opera, is the most popular form
of Chinese drama. It combines dialogue, music, dancing, and acrobatics. 
The principal Chinese musical instruments are the jin and the pipa, two plucked stringed
instruments. Chinese musicians also play bowed stringed instruments, flutes, and
percussion instruments, especially bells, drums, and gongs. The basic scale of Chinese
music has five notes, most commonly F, G, A, C, and D. Traditional Chinese music does not
have harmony. 
Japanese music was influenced by the court music of China. Japanese court music, called
gagaku, dates from the A.D. 700's. Japanese orchestras consist of shakuhachi (bamboo
flutes), gongs, drums, and such plucked stringed instruments as the samisen and the koto.

Music is an essential part of Japanese theatre. The no play, a form of Japanese drama
developed in the 1300's, features solo and choral singing with accompaniment by a small
orchestra. A large orchestra provides background music for the kabuki, a dance-drama. 
Japanese music has no harmony but makes use of microtones and free rhythm. The basic
scales are the natural minor scale and a major scale with the fourth note raised a half
step--for example, the C major scale with an F sharp instead of an F. 
Indian music is one of the few kinds of non-Western music that have become
internationally popular. It first flourished in Hindu temples and the courts of the
maharajahs (great kings) of India. A soloist sings or plucks a stringed instrument, such
as the vina or the sitar. The soloist may be accompanied by a drummer and a musician
playing a tambura, a lutelike instrument. 
The notes of the Indian scale are arranged in various patterns called ragas. Each raga
has a special meaning and may be associated with a particular mood, emotion, season, or
time of day. The performer chooses an appropriate raga, plays it, and then improvises on
it. See also INDIA, DANCE AND MUSIC OF. 
Arab music is the music of the Arab nations of the Middle East and northern Africa. The
main Arab instruments include flutes; drums; and two plucked stringed instruments, the
oud and the qanun. Most Arab songs have instrumental accompaniment. However, musical
instruments may not be used in Muslim worship. The chief Muslim religious music consists
of calls to prayer sung by criers called muezzins and the chanting of passages from the
Quran, the sacred book of the Muslims. 
Indonesian music is noted for orchestras called gamelans. These orchestras consist of
drums, gongs, and xylophones and are used to accompany puppet plays. Gamelan music has a
kind of harmony because the instruments play different melodies at the same time. 
African music is the music of black peoples who live south of the Sahara. These peoples
use music in almost every aspect of their lives, especially religious ceremonies,
festivals, and social rituals. Many Africans believe that music serves as a link with the
spirit world. 
Drums are the most important instruments in African music. Some drums are made of animal
skins and may be played with the fingers. Others consist of hollow logs that the
performer beats with sticks. African musicians also play flutes, xylophones, and stringed
instruments. One kind of instrument, called the sansa or mbira, consists of a number of
metal strips attached to a piece of wood. The musician plays the instrument by plucking
the strips with the fingers or thumbs. 
Most African music features complex rhythms. The musicians create these rhythms by
combining different patterns of beats played on drums and iron bells or produced by
handclapping. Some African songs have harmony. In many songs, a leader sings a phrase and
then the chorus repeats the phrase or sings a refrain. Elements of African music appear
in jazz, spirituals, gospel music, and the popular music of Brazil and the Caribbean. 
American Indian music is the traditional music of the Indians of North and South America.
Much of it developed before Europeans arrived in the Americas. 
American Indians almost always perform music as part of an activity. For example, music
and dancing play an important part in Indian religious ceremonies and such tribal rituals
as rain dances and hunting dances. Indian religious leaders called medicine men sing
songs as they treat the sick. The Indians also use songs in various social situations,
such as courtship and trading. Many Indians compose their own songs. In the past, they
said that they learned these songs from spirits that appeared to them in dreams. 
Most American Indian music consists of singing accompanied by drums or rattles. Much of
this vocal music uses a five-note scale--A, C, D, F, G. Some Indian groups also perform
flute music. 
In various parts of Latin America, the music of the Indians mixed with the folk music of
their Spanish conquerors. This mixture produced distinctive types of popular music and
dance. 
Questions 
How do composers indicate silence in music? 
What is Western music? Why does Asian music sound different from Western music? 
What is a staff signature? A time signature? 
How do minor scales and major scales differ? 
What is counterpoint? 
What is the difference between tone and tone colour? 
How does a musician play a brass instrument? 
What is a theme? A motive? 
What is the major difference between music and such arts as painting and poetry? 
Additional Resources 
Level I 
Berger, Melvin. The Science of Music. Crowell 1989. Illustrated discussion of music
fundamentals, instruments, acoustics, and recording. 
Griffin, Clive D. Jazz. Dryad 1989. 
The Oxford Junior Companion to Music. Ed. by Michael Hurd. 2nd ed. Oxford 1979. 
Previn, Andre. Andre Previn's Guide to the Orchestra. Putnam 1983. 
Wilson, Clive. The Kingfisher Young People's Book of Music. Larousse Kingfisher Chambers,
New York, 1996. 
Level II 
Booth, Mark W. American Popular Music: A Reference Guide. Greenwood 1983. 
Chase, Gilbert. America's Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present. 3rd ed. Univ. of
Illinois Press 1987. History of popular and classical music. 
Copland, Aaron. What to Listen for in Music. Rev. ed. McGraw 1988. 
Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Vol 1: Africa. Edited by Ruth Stone. Garland
Publishing, New York, 1996. 
Geiringer, Karl. Instruments in the History of Western Music. 3rd ed. Oxford 1978. 
Grout, Donald Jay. A History of Western Music. 3rd ed. Norton 1980. 
Machlis, Joseph. The Enjoyment of Music: An Introduction to Perceptive Listening. 5th ed.
Norton 1984. 
The New Oxford Companion to Music. Ed. by Denis Arnold. 2 vols. Oxford 1983. 
Stambler, Irwin. Encyclopedia of Pop, Rock, & Soul. St. Martin's 1989. 
---- end of article ----