FREE ESSAY ON THE NEW LOOK OF FLYING MACHINES

THE NEW LOOK OF FLYING MACHINES

Most people are familiar with the Standard Configuration, the most common airplane design.
However, recent revelations in both military and general aviation have shown at least a
slight movement toward different arrangements of an airplane's lift and control surfaces.
These variations in aircraft structure include the canard configuration and the flying
wing.
First, we must understand the basic principles of flight before any different
configurations of lift surfaces can be discussed. In order for any object to gain lift,
it must have a force pushing it upwards which is greater than its weight. This force,
called lift, results from the differing pressures on the upper and lower surfaces of the
wing. The air that hits the leading edge of the wing separates. Part goes over the wing,
and part travels underneath it. The top of the wing curves, or is cambered, causing the
air passing over the top of the wing to go faster than the air passing under the wing.
The lower surface of the wing is relatively flat, so air travels at, or near, its normal
speed. Bernoulli's Law says that as the speed of gas or fluid increases its pressure
decreases (Pappas 2). 
Therefore, there is a greater air pressure under the wing than there is above the wing.
This greater pressure under the wing pushes the plane up. When this force exceeds the
pull of gravity on the aircraft, flight is achieved.
Two other forces affect an aircraft's movement through the air: thrust and drag. Thrust
is the force provided by an aircraft's power plant which pushes or pulls it forward
through the air. Drag, which counteracts thrust, is the force of wind resistance against
the aircraft. It is supplemented by various appendages on the aircraft, such as the
wings, stabilizers, and the fuselage. The less drag there is on an aircraft, the faster
and more economically it can fly. Drag can be reduced by eliminating items which disrupt
airflow. 
The wing, horizontal stabilizer and vertical stabilizer of an aircraft have, at their
trailing edges, control surfaces which change the direction of flight by altering the
lift characteristics of the surface which house them. The flaps, which are designed to
increase the lift of the wings on take-off and landing, are lowered. The increased camber
of the upper surface causes the air flowing across the wing's upper surface to move even
faster, decreasing the air pressure on the upper surface. This increases the force on the
bottom of the wing and increases the lift. The ailerons, which control the rolling motion
of the plane, shift in opposite directions. When the airplane is to turn to the right,
the aileron on the left wing lowers, increasing the lift on that wing. At the same time,
the aileron on the right wing is raised, which creates an opposite-lift effect, and the
aircraft rolls to the right. The opposite is true for a left turn. The rudder works
similarly: to yaw to the right, the rudder swings right, creating a greater pressure on
the right side of the vertical stabilizer. This causes the tail of the plane to shift to
the left, and the plane pivots about the vertical axis, pointing the nose right. The
opposite is true for left yaw. Elevators, which control the pitch of the plane, work
differently for each configuration. They will be discussed separately.
Today, the Standard Configuration is the most prevalent design of personal, commercial
and military airplanes. The main wing is located about a third- or half-way from the nose
of the aircraft, close to the center of gravity, and serves as the lateral axis. The
empennage at the tail of the plane consists of the horizontal stabilizer and the vertical
stabilizer.
The horizontal stabilizer provides lateral stability and houses the elevator, which
controls the pitch of the aircraft. In the Standard Configuration, because the horizontal
stabilizer and the elevator are aft of the lateral axis. A downward motion of the
elevator increases the lift of the airplane's tail. As the tail rises, the plane pivots
on the lateral axis, and the nose points downward. An upward motion of the elevator
decreases the lift of the tail, pushing it downward. The aircraft pivots in the opposite
direction, causing the plane to climb. The vertical stabilizer gives longitudinal
stability and houses the rudder, which controls the aircraft's bearing, or yaw.
The Standard Configuration is the most common and most popular design because a
relatively small and light surface can be made to provide control and stability over a
fairly wide range of centers of gravity, with economy of effort and a fairly modest
penalty in weight (Stinton 389).
The Canard Configuration, a second arrangement of aircraft lift and stabilizing surfaces,
is named for the canard, or forward-wing, which is the basis of its design. 
After nearly forty years of more-of-the-same aircraft design, general aviation is
suddenly breaking the mold and racing into the future with new planes that challenge
traditional thinking (Popular Science 74).
The tail-first idea is not new. Many of the gliders built and flown by aviation pioneers
such as Lilienthal and the Wrights were built on the Canard Configuration (Stinton 151).
This configuration has not been used much in the past, but we may see more aircraft
manufacturers moving to this design.
The operation of the elevators is opposite that in the Standard Configuration. Because
the elevators are forward of the lateral axis, they directly alter the lift on the
forward section of the aircraft. Down-elevator increases lift on the nose of the
airplane, which causes the plane to climb. Up-elevator has the opposite effect.
This design is being seen more and more in personal and business aviation, mostly in the
radical designs of aeronautical engineer Burt Rutan. It is especially attractive for
short-field operation because it has better acceleration and thrust in shorter distances
than Standard Configuration aircraft with the same weight, wing, and power loadings. All
of Rutan's designs feature a high-aspect-ratio, cambered, high-lift canard. The canard
replaces the empennage, decreases the mass and weight of the aircraft, and provides stall
and spin resistance (Rollo 32). In a stall situation, because the horizontal stabilizer
is placed forward, it stalls before the main wing does (Stinton 151). When the horizontal
stabilizer, or canard, stalls, the aircraft automatically pitches nose-down. This causes
the plane to un-stall and return to controlled flight (Mondey 91).
The canard configuration employs two lift surfaces, instead of a single lift surface, the
wing, and a tail which provides a balancing downforce (Beechcraft 2). This downforce is
subtracted from the lift on the aircraft. The canard, however, adds to the lift of the
wing (Stinton 151). 
Probably the best known canard aircraft is the Beechcraft Starship, a new corporate
aircraft designed by Rutan. Gates and Rinaldo Piaggio are jointly creating another canard
corporate aircraft to provide Gates with a new aircraft with learjet performance and
quality but costing less, (Popular Science 143). They decided to put the main wing aft to
give more walking space in the cabin. They used a canard design to avoid the weight of a
huge tail (Popular Science 143).
General aviation is not the only field that has been introduced to the Canard
Configuration. The United States Air Force is exploring a canard trainer, the T-46. The
Navy is exploring a new breed of fighters--post-stall aircraft--and the X-31, the first
in this field employs, among many other advanced features, a canard (Schefter 59). NASA,
as well, is exploring the efficiency of a canard on a modified A-3B Sky Warrior (Popular
Science 143).
With a conventional tail, there would be a downward vector, which reduces aircraft
performance. But by putting a canard and control surfaces out front, you get an upward
force vector to balance out the nose-down moment. The name of the game is to get as much
lift as you can so you can carry as much weight as possible (Popular Science 143).
Results from the NASA research are expected to influence both military and commercial-jet
design of this decade and the future. The industry has been conservative for years--now
we're pushing. These airplanes will be better than anything that exists today (Popular
Science 143).
The Canard Configuration, though it has many physical, economical and safety advantages
over the Standard Configuration, it has its shortcomings. To cope with a center of
gravity that is further aft, more keel surface is needed for directional stability. Also,
the tail weight is increased by placing the main wing aft (Stinton 152).
Essentially, the Canard Configuration is attractive because the removal of an empennage
reduces the mass, weight, and drag of an aircraft. The canard, more importantly, provides
stall and spin resistance by providing an additional lift surface (Rollo 32).
Another airplane design that has been seen a lot lately in powered flight is the Flying
Wing. The Flying Wing design is not new, either. Hang gliders and kites are merely
smaller, un-powered versions of a flying wing design. As early as 1910, the world had
seen a successful tailless airplane--the D-10, designed by author, soldier, pilot and
designer William Dunne of Britain (Wooldridge 40). However, now that Stealth aircraft has
become a serious need of military forces, we have seen and heard a lot more of the
all-wing concept.
As the name suggests, the Flying Wing is the airplane distilled to its essence, the wing.
The lack of various appendages found on conventional aircraft greatly reduces drag
(Wooldridge 39). Everything necessary for flight is contained in a huge wing: engines,
cockpit, landing gear, and all control surfaces, as well as armament on a military
aircraft. What benefit does this have? Jack Northrop, an aeronautical engineer in the
1920's and -30's believed that a flying wing could carry any load faster, farther, and
more economically than a conventional plane, (Hallion 93).
The flying wing functions much like a conventional aircraft. Two moving surfaces at each
trailing edge for lateral and longitudinal control and landing flaps are located beneath
the center section (Wooldridge 45). Longitudinal stability is 
achieved by building decalage into the wing. That is, portions lying ahead of the center
of gravity (CG) have a larger angle of incidence than trailing portions.
Because the flying wing design is used most in military aircraft, an important question
to address is: Why is the Flying Wing design attractive for military Stealth aircraft?
The fact that all components are contained within a streamlined surface contributes to a
successful Stealth Aircraft. There are no appendages to reflect radar beams, and the
engines are recessed within the wing with small openings. This lessens the heat produced
and escapes infrared sensors. These attributes, combined with radar-absorbing materials
help planes such as the B-2 Stealth Bomber escape radar and infrared detection at any
altitude. 
This paper discusses differences between three airfoil configurations. The Standard
Configuration has a main wing and its empennage aft. The Canard Configuration adds or
replaces the empennage with a forward-wing. This airfoil reduces parasite drag by adding
lift. This additional lift and reduced drag makes a canard aircraft hard or impossible to
stall. The Flying Wing is a large self-contained wing, containing everything necessary
for controlled flight within a streamlined surface.
Bibliography
Hallion, Richard P. The Epic of Flight: Designers and Test Pilots. Alexandria: Time-Life
Books, Inc. 1983.
Rollo, Vera Foster, PhD. Burt Rutan: Reinventing the Airplane. Lanham, MD: Maryland
Historical Press. 1991.
Schefter, Jim. Hot New Shapes--Passenger Planes That Will Revolutionize Aviation. pp.
74-77, 143. Popular Science. June, 1984.
Schefter, Jim. X-31: How They're Inventing a Radical New
Way to Fly. pp 58-64. Popular Science. February, 1989.
Wooldridge, E. T. Flying Wing. pp 58-64. Aviation Heritage. November, 1991. The Design of
the Aeroplane
Hallion, Richard P. The Epic of Flight: Designers and Test Pilots. Alexandria: Time-Life
Books, Inc. 1983.
Rollo, Vera Foster, PhD. Burt Rutan: Reinventing the Airplane. Lanham, MD: Maryland
Historical Press. 1991.
Schefter, Jim. Hot New Shapes--Passenger Planes That Will Revolutionize Aviation. pp.
74-77, 143. Popular Science. June, 1984.
Schefter, Jim. X-31: How They're Inventing a Radical New
Way to Fly. pp 58-64. Popular Science. February, 1989.
Wooldridge, E. T. Flying Wing. pp 58-64. Aviation Heritage. November, 1991. The Design of
the Aeroplane
Hallion, Richard P. The Epic of Flight: Designers and Test Pilots. Alexandria: Time-Life
Books, Inc. 1983.
Rollo, Vera Foster, PhD. Burt Rutan: Reinventing the Airplane. Lanham, MD: Maryland
Historical Press. 1991.
Schefter, Jim. Hot New Shapes--Passenger Planes That Will Revolutionize Aviation. pp.
74-77, 143. Popular Science. June, 1984.
Schefter, Jim. X-31: How They're Inventing a Radical New
Way to Fly. pp 58-64. Popular Science. February, 1989.
Wooldridge, E. T. Flying Wing. pp 58-64. Aviation Heritage. November, 1991. The Design of
the Aeroplane
Hallion, Richard P. The Epic of Flight: Designers and Test Pilots. Alexandria: Time-Life
Books, Inc. 1983.
Rollo, Vera Foster, PhD. Burt Rutan: Reinventing the Airplane. Lanham, MD: Maryland
Historical Press. 1991.
Schefter, Jim. Hot New Shapes--Passenger Planes That Will Revolutionize Aviation. pp.
74-77, 143. Popular Science. June, 1984.
Schefter, Jim. X-31: How They're Inventing a Radical New
Way to Fly. pp 58-64. Popular Science. February, 1989.
Wooldridge, E. T. Flying Wing. pp 58-64. Aviation Heritage. November, 1991. The Design of
the Aeroplane
Hallion, Richard P. The Epic of Flight: Designers and Test Pilots. Alexandria: Time-Life
Books, Inc. 1983.
Rollo, Vera Foster, PhD. Burt Rutan: Reinventing the Airplane. Lanham, MD: Maryland
Historical Press. 1991.
Schefter, Jim. Hot New Shapes--Passenger Planes That Will Revolutionize Aviation. pp.
74-77, 143. Popular Science. June, 1984.
Schefter, Jim. X-31: How They're Inventing a Radical New
Way to Fly. pp 58-64. Popular Science. February, 1989.
Wooldridge, E. T. Flying Wing. pp 58-64. Aviation Heritage. November, 1991. The Design of
the Aeroplane
Hallion, Richard P. The Epic of Flight: Designers and Test Pilots. Alexandria: Time-Life
Books, Inc. 1983.
Rollo, Vera Foster, PhD. Burt Rutan: Reinventing the Airplane. Lanham, MD: Maryland
Historical Press. 1991.
Schefter, Jim. Hot New Shapes--Passenger Planes That Will Revolutionize Aviation. pp.
74-77, 143. Popular Science. June, 1984.
Schefter, Jim. X-31: How They're Inventing a Radical New
Way to Fly. pp 58-64. Popular Science. February, 1989.
Wooldridge, E. T. Flying Wing. pp 58-64. Aviation Heritage. November, 1991. The Design of
the Aeroplane
Hallion, Richard P. The Epic of Flight: Designers and Test Pilots. Alexandria: Time-Life
Books, Inc. 1983.
Rollo, Vera Foster, PhD. Burt Rutan: Reinventing the Airplane. Lanham, MD: Maryland
Historical Press. 1991.
Schefter, Jim. Hot New Shapes--Passenger Planes That Will Revolutionize Aviation. pp.
74-77, 143. Popular Science. June, 1984.
Schefter, Jim. X-31: How They're Inventing a Radical New
Way to Fly. pp 58-64. Popular Science. February, 1989.
Wooldridge, E. T. Flying Wing. pp 58-64. Aviation Heritage. November, 1991.